CONCEPT OF NORMAL & ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

 CONCEPT OF NORMAL & ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

Introduction

What is Behaviour?
Behaviour refers to the manner in which a person acts or conducts themselves, especially in response to situations or stimuli. It can be evaluated based on conformity to societal standards, norms, and expectations.

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Types of Behaviour

1. Normal Behaviour:
   Normal behaviour is perceived as natural, routine, or regular. It aligns with societal expectations and is often associated with positive and functional actions.

2. Abnormal Behaviour:
   Abnormal behaviour refers to activities or actions that deviate from societal norms. These behaviours are often considered undesirable, uncommon, or indicative of issues ranging from birth defects to mental illnesses.

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Characteristics of Normal Behaviour

Marie Jahoda (1958) outlined six characteristics that define mental health and normal behaviour:

• Efficient self-perception

• Realistic self-esteem and acceptance

• Voluntary control of behaviour

• True perception of the world

• Sustaining relationships and giving affection

• Self-direction and productivity

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Characteristics of Abnormal Behaviour

The "4 D's" of Abnormality:

1. Dysfunction:
   Behaviours and feelings that interfere with a person's daily functioning, ability to maintain relationships, or hold a job.

2. Distress:
   Behaviours or feelings causing significant emotional discomfort to the individual or those around them.

3. Deviance:
   Highly deviant behaviours, such as chronic lying or stealing, that are considered abnormal by societal standards.

4. Dangerousness:
   Behaviours or feelings that pose potential harm to the individual or others.

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Models of Normal and Abnormal Behaviour

1. Physiological or Biological Model:

   • Focuses on brain structure, neuroanatomy, and biochemistry as determinants of behaviour.

   • Suggests that mental illnesses arise from physical or chemical imbalances and can be treated with surgery or medication.

2. Behavioural Model:

   • Emphasizes that all maladaptive behaviour is learned from the environment.

   • Interventions focus on altering behaviour through therapies such as aversion therapy.

3. Psychodynamic Model:

   • Based on Freud’s principles, this model posits that mental illnesses stem from repressed emotions or unresolved past experiences, particularly from childhood.

   • Healing involves bringing repressed emotions to consciousness.

4. Cognitive Model:

   • Focuses on thought processes, cognitive distortions, and deficiencies in planning and problem-solving.

   • Explains mental disorders as resulting from irrational or negative thinking patterns.

   • Highlights internal mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving as key areas for understanding and intervention.

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Conclusion

Understanding the concept of normal and abnormal behaviour is critical in psychology and mental health. It enables professionals to identify, evaluate, and address mental health challenges using various theoretical models. Each model provides unique insights and therapeutic approaches to restore balance and promote well-being.

What is normal behavior

• 1. What is normal behavior 
•  The common pattern of behavior found among the general majority is said to be the behavior of the normal. Normal people exhibit satisfactory work capacity and earn an adequate income. They conform and adjust to their social surrounding. 
•  They are capable of establishing, satisfying and acceptable relationships with other people and their emotional reactions are basically appropriate to different situations. Such people manage to control their emotions. 
•  Their emotional experiences do not affect their personality adjustment though they experience occasional frustrations and conflict. These people who adjust well with themselves, their surroundings, and their associates constitute the normal group. 
•  The normal group covers the great majority of people. According to Coleman (1981) consistent with the long-term well-being and progress of the group. normal behavior will represent the optimal development and functioning of the individual 
•  Thus, people having an average amount of intelligence, personality stability, and social adaptability are considered as normal.
• 2. Meaning and concept of abnormality 
•  The concept of abnormality is defined as the simple exaggeration or perverted development of normal psychological behavior. In other words, it deals with the usual behavior of man. The unusual or maladapted behavior of many persons which do not fit into our common forms of behavior is known as abnormal behavior.
•   Abnormality refers to maladjustment to one’s society and culture which surrounds him. It is the deviation from the normal in an unfavorable and pathological way. 
•  According to Brown (1940) abnormal psychological phenomena are simple exaggerations (over- development or under-development) or disguised (i.e., perverted developments) of normal psychological phenomena. 
•  It is expected, for instance, that a normal human being would react to a snake by immediately withdrawing from it. But if the person, on the contrary, plays with the snake very happily, it is a sign of uncommon behavior which may be considered abnormal provided that past experience or training does not play a part here.
• 3.  A person who has been by profession trained from the very childhood to deal with snakes will not be afraid of a snake and if he does not withdraw from a snake, will not be considered abnormal.  Coleman (1981) holds that deviant behaviors are considered as maladaptive because they are not only harmful to society, but to the individual. Maladaptive behavior impairs individual and group well-being and it brings distress to the individual. It also leads to individual and group conflicts.
•   Page (1976) views that the abnormal group consists of individuals marked by limited intelligence, emotional instability, personality disorganization, and character defects who for the most part led wretched personal lives and were social misfits and liabilities. 
•  Thus, abnormality and normality can only be defined in terms of conformity to the will and welfare of the group and in the capacity for self-management.
•   A close analysis of various types of abnormal behavior indicates that abnormal behavior circumscribes a wide range of maladaptive reactions like psychoneuroses, psychoses, delinquents, sexual deviants, drug addicts, etc.
• 4.  Thus, the same kind of biological, social, and psychological maladjustment affects the functioning of the individual in a society. The abnormal deviants who constitute about 10 percent of the general population are classified into four main categories; such as psychoneurotic, psychotic, mentally defective, and antisocial.
• 5. Models of understanding abnormal behaviour
•   Models in the study of psychopathology. Models are analogies that scientists use to describe things they cannot directly observe. Among the models that psychologists use is the medical model, which portrays psychological disorders as diseases. Other models are also used, and it is unlikely that the definitive model will ever be developed. The case of Steven V. is presented, which describes a college student suffering from depression and violent fantasies. 
•  Models of abnormality are general hypotheses as to the nature of psychological abnormalities. The eight main models explain psychological abnormality. They all attempt to explain the causes and treatments for all psychological illnesses, and all from a different approach.t what has been learned can be unlearned
• 6. Biological Model
•   Biological models. The biological model suggests that abnormal behavior is caused by biological factors, especially involving genetic material and the brain. The human brain is composed of billions of neurons (nerve cells) that receive and transmit information. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body. The brain structures most relevant to abnormal behavior include the thalamus, hypothalamus, reticular activating system, limbic system, and cerebrum. Other structures in the midbrain and hindbrain manufacture chemicals that are correlated with mental disorders. Biochemical theories suggest that chemical imbalances underlie mental disorders. Neurons are composed of dendrites, which receive signals from other neurons, and axons, which send the signals to other neurons. At the end of the axon is a gap called the synapse, into which chemicals called neurotransmitters are released. Imbalances in neurotransmitters are associated with many mental disorders. Certain medications can reduce symptoms of abnormal behavior by blocking or facilitating neurotransmitter activity.
• 7. Biological Model 
•  Genetics also plays an important part in explaining the development of disorders. A person’s genotype (genetic makeup) interacts with the environment to produce physical or behavioral characteristics (the person’s phenotype). The Human Genome Project has mapped the location of all genes in the nucleus of a human cell and has completed its sequencing to provide a basic blueprint of the entire genetic material found in each cell of the human body. While single cells have been found to be responsible for a few diseases, most diseases are the result of many genes interacting with hormones, electrical signals, and nutrient supplies internally plus physical and social environments. The biological model overemphasizes internal causes, equates organic dysfunction with a mental dysfunction, and assumes that biochemical differences are the cause of disorder when they may be the result. Diathesis-stress theory argues that people can inherit a vulnerability to developing an illness, but this tendency must be activated by environmental forces for the disorder to occur.
• 8. Psychodynamic model 
•  Psychodynamic models. Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic model emphasizes early childhood experiences. Anxiety results from unconscious conflicts and threatens us; in dealing with those threats, we develop symptoms. Psychoanalysis is the therapeutic technique that asserts unconscious conflicts must be aired and understood by the patient to eliminate abnormal behavior.
• 9. Psychodynamic model 
•  Personality structure. Personality is a dynamic process resulting from three interacting components: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id operates on the pleasure principle, a need for immediate gratification. The ego is influenced by the reality principle. The superego is composed of the conscience and the ego ideal. Personality develops through five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital). Fixation at any of the stages affects emotional development. Anxiety is at the root of psychoanalytic thinking and takes three forms: realistic, moralistic, and neurotic. Defense mechanisms protect the individual from anxiety. These include, among others, repression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, undoing, and regression. In psychoanalysis, therapists induce ego weakness so that unconscious material can be brought to the surface. These insights help patients understand their inner motives. Post-Freudian perspectives take Freud’s ideas in new directions. They emphasize freedom of choice and future goals, ego autonomy, social forces, object relations, and treatment of seriously disturbed people. Psychoanalysis has been criticized for basing its evidence on case studies, which are subject to distortion. Psychodynamic theory is biased against women and cannot be applied to a wide range of disturbed people.
• 10. Behavioural Model 
•  Behavioral models. The behavioral models emphasize learning. The classical conditioning model involves the pairing of a neutral (conditioned) stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that automatically produces certain responses called the unconditioned response. After repeated pairing, the conditioned stimulus alone can produce a weakened version of the response, call the conditioned response. Classical conditioning in psychopathology. These concepts can be said to explain the development of phobias and deviant sexual behavior. However, the passive nature of associative learning makes it a limited explanatory tool. The operant conditioning model stresses the consequences of voluntary and controllable behaviors called operant behaviors. According to Thorndike’s law of effect, these behaviors are more likely when they produce positive consequences and less likely when they produce negative consequences. Operant conditioning principles help explain such forms of psychopathology as self-injurious behavior. As in classical conditioning, operant concepts can be applied to treatment as well. The observational learning model suggests that an individual can acquire new behaviors simply by watching other people perform them through the process of vicarious conditioning or modeling. Observational learning in psychopathology assumes that exposure to disturbed models helps produce disturbed behavior. Behavioral models have made significant contributions to both the understanding and treatment of disorders. However, they are criticized for diminishing the importance of inner determinants of behavior.
• 11. Cognitive Model 
•  Cognitive models. The cognitive models assume that thoughts modify our emotional states and behavior. People differ in their mediating processes, which determine our reactions, behaviors, and self-evaluations. Our schemas (how we interpret events) influence our experiences. Cognitive theorists focus on irrational beliefs (Ellis) or dysfunctional automatic thoughts (Beck). Becks’ work on depression helped him identify a hierarchy of cognitive content. Ellis describes an A-B-C theory of personality in which A is an event, B is a belief, and C is a consequent behavior or emotion. Beck describes six types of faulty or distorted thinking: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralization, magnification and exaggeration, personalization, and polarized thinking. Cognitive approaches to therapy have clients monitor their thoughts; recognize the connections between thoughts, emotions, and behaviors; examine the evidence for their assumptions; and substitute more reality- oriented interpretations. Some behaviorists warn that cognitions cannot be observed and therefore are not the stuff of science. Humanistically oriented psychologists object to reducing human beings to the sum of their cognitions. Others object to confrontative cognitive therapy methods.
• 12. Humanistic and existential approaches 
•  Humanistic and existential approaches. The humanistic and existential approaches emphasize the need to appreciate the world from the individual's vantage point. They also highlight freedom of choice and the wholeness of the individual. Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow suggested that people are motivated by the actualizing tendency to enhance the self (self-actualization). The development of abnormal behavior occurs when society imposes conditions of worth on people so that their self- concept and actualizing tendency become incongruent. This incongruence produces behavior disorders. In Rogers’s person-centered therapy, people are free to grow toward their potential. The therapist uses the reflection of feelings and acceptance rather than advice to help the client actively evaluate his or her experience. The existential perspective is not a systematized school of thought but a set of attitudes that is less optimistic than humanism. It views the individual within the human condition and focuses more on the responsibility to others. Both approaches lack scientific grounding, are vague, and apply therapies that are ineffective with severely disturbed clients.
• 13. The Family Systems Model I. The family systems model. Unlike the biological, psychodynamic, and behavioral models, which stress the individual, the family systems model emphasizes the influence of the family on individual behavior. II. Family treatment approaches see abnormality as a symptom of unhealthy family dynamics, including communication problems. Three family therapy approaches are 
• (1) communications, as defined by Virginia Stairs’ conjoint family therapy approach (teaching message-sending/receiving skills to all family members); 
• (2) strategic, which sees therapy as a power struggle between the client and therapist where the identified patient is in control, so the therapist must devise strategies to help the family change the balance; and 
• (3) the structural family approach that sees a need for restructuring family relationships, which are typically either too involved or too uninvolved with each other. Criticisms of the family systems model include difficulty defining it from different cultural viewpoints and its confusion of cause and effect over the issue of family abuse.
• 14. Models of diversity and psychopathology 
•  Models of diversity and psychopathology. As European Americans become a numerical minority in the United States, there is a growing awareness of cultural issues in psychopathology. Early models viewed cultural minorities as genetically inferior or culturally deprived relative to white middle-class culture. Multicultural models of psychopathology argue that culture is central to all theories of pathology, that European- American concepts must be balanced by non-Western perspectives, and that human development includes cultural context. The DSM-IV-TR includes cultural considerations. Bias may help explain apparent cultural differences in psychopathology; Europeans emphasize individuality in ways other cultures do not, but some critics argue that a disorder is a disorder regardless of cultural context. The multicultural perspective has been criticized for lacking empirical validation.
• 15. An integrative approach to models of psychopathology 
•  An integrative approach to models of psychopathology. It is useful to compare and contrast the different models of psychopathology. However, few practicing clinicians use them rigidly and most see value in an eclectic approach: we are all biological, psychological, and cultural beings. A tripartite framework for understanding abnormal psychology includes the individual level, the group level, and the universal level.

What Is Abnormal Psychology?

Abnormal psychology is a specialized branch of psychology that explores psychopathology and abnormal behavior, focusing on patterns of emotion, thought, and behavior indicative of mental health conditions. This field encompasses a wide range of psychological disorders, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and personality disorders. Professionals such as counselors, psychologists, and psychotherapists often work in this domain, addressing the distress and disruptions these conditions cause in individuals’ lives.

Defining Abnormality

One of the central challenges in abnormal psychology is defining what constitutes "abnormal" behavior. Social norms and cultural expectations significantly influence these definitions, and what is deemed abnormal in one era or culture may be considered normal in another. Key characteristics commonly used to identify abnormality include:

• Infrequency: Abnormal behaviors are typically rare, but statistical rarity alone does not suffice as a definition. Many uncommon traits, such as exceptional intelligence, are not considered abnormal.

• Distress: Behaviors or thoughts that cause significant distress to the individual or others often signal abnormality.

• Functional Impairment: Abnormal behaviors can hinder daily functioning, impacting relationships, work, school, and home life.

• Social Disruption: Such behaviors may violate societal norms, making social interactions and relationships challenging.

Abnormal psychology, therefore, prioritizes understanding behaviors that cause distress, impair functioning, and disrupt social norms rather than simply labeling them as infrequent.

Four Approaches to Abnormal Psychology

Several theoretical perspectives guide the study and treatment of abnormal psychology. While professionals may emphasize one approach, they often integrate elements from multiple perspectives to provide comprehensive care:

1. Psychoanalytic Approach: Rooted in Sigmund Freud’s theories, this approach attributes abnormal behaviors to unconscious thoughts, desires, and memories. Therapists help individuals uncover and address hidden emotions and conflicts through techniques like dream analysis and free association.

2. Behavioral Approach: This perspective focuses on observable behaviors and emphasizes modifying maladaptive behaviors through reinforcement and conditioning techniques, such as classical and operant conditioning.

3. Medical Approach: Concentrating on the biological underpinnings of mental disorders, this approach examines genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and physical illnesses. Treatments often involve medication, sometimes combined with psychotherapy.

4. Cognitive Approach: This approach explores how thoughts, perceptions, and reasoning influence psychological disorders. Cognitive therapy aims to help individuals reframe maladaptive thoughts, often combining cognitive strategies with behavioral methods in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

Topics in Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology covers the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders. Mental health professionals rely on the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM) to classify and diagnose these conditions. Major categories of psychological disorders include:

• Anxiety Disorders: Such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder.

• Mood Disorders: Including depression and bipolar disorder.

• Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Such as intellectual disabilities and autism spectrum disorder.

• Neurocognitive Disorders: Including conditions like delirium.

• Personality Disorders: Such as borderline personality disorder and avoidant personality disorder.

• Substance Use Disorders: Related to the misuse of drugs or alcohol.

Criticisms of Abnormal Psychology

Despite its contributions, the field of abnormal psychology faces criticisms. One major point of contention is the use of the term "abnormal," which some argue stigmatizes individuals and marginalizes normal variations in behavior. Additionally:

• Cultural Bias: Definitions of abnormality often fail to account for cultural differences, leading to potential misdiagnoses.

• Medical Model Limitations: The emphasis on biological factors can overlook psychological, social, and cultural influences.

• Stigma: Research shows that studying abnormal psychology does not necessarily reduce stigma around mental illness. For instance, a study found that teaching students about abnormal psychology had little effect on their attitudes or willingness to seek help.

Importance of Abnormal Psychology

Understanding abnormal psychology is essential for identifying and treating mental health conditions. By investigating the causes and manifestations of psychological disorders, researchers and clinicians can develop effective interventions. This knowledge helps alleviate distress, restore functioning, and improve overall well-being.

Conclusion

Abnormal psychology delves into the complexities of atypical behavior, striving to understand and address the challenges faced by individuals with mental health conditions. While it is not without its criticisms, this field plays a crucial role in advancing mental health care, fostering understanding, and promoting healthier, more fulfilling lives for those affected by psychological disorders.

How to Choose the Best Type of Therapy For You

Deciding to go to therapy is a significant step toward improving your mental health and well-being. It’s worth acknowledging the courage it takes to make this decision. However, determining which type of therapy best suits your needs can feel overwhelming. With various therapeutic approaches available, understanding your goals and preferences is essential to find the right fit.

The Importance of Choosing the Right Therapy for You

Choosing the right type of therapy is crucial to achieving your therapeutic goals efficiently. The average cost of therapy per session is $178, so selecting the appropriate modality can save you time and money. Whether you’re coping with a mental health diagnosis, navigating personal challenges, or seeking support for a stressful life event, understanding your needs will guide your choice.

How to Identify Your Needs

Reflect on Your Goals

Start by identifying the top three issues you’d like to address in therapy. For example, you might want to work on managing grief, alleviating anxiety, or improving your relationships. Writing these down can provide clarity and help you communicate your needs to potential therapists.

Research Specializations

Look for therapists who specialize in the areas you want to address. Online directories and therapy platforms can help you find professionals with expertise in specific conditions or challenges, such as anxiety, trauma, or substance use. Many online services also offer algorithms to match you with a therapist based on your preferences.

Popular Types of Therapy

Understanding common therapeutic modalities can help you decide which approach aligns with your needs. Below are three widely used methods:

1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

CBT is a structured, goal-oriented approach that focuses on identifying and changing unhelpful thoughts and behaviors. It is effective for treating a variety of issues, including:

• Depression

• Anxiety

• Substance abuse

• Eating disorders

CBT emphasizes the present and works to solve current problems. It is typically a short-term therapy lasting three to four months, making it ideal for individuals seeking a focused, practical approach.

2. Psychodynamic Therapy

This therapy explores unconscious processes and past experiences that influence present behaviors and emotions. Psychodynamic therapy involves:

• Examining early childhood experiences

• Understanding unconscious thoughts and feelings

• Using the therapeutic relationship as a tool for insight

If you’re interested in exploring unresolved emotions or gaining a deeper understanding of your behaviors, this approach may be right for you.

3. Somatic Therapy

Somatic therapy addresses the connection between the mind and body, often focusing on trauma stored in the body. Methods include:

• Somatic Experiencing: Targets bodily sensations to release trauma

• Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR): Uses bilateral stimulation to process traumatic memories

• Brainspotting: Employs visual fields to access trauma and associated emotions

If you’re dealing with the impact of trauma, somatic therapies can help you process and heal in a holistic way.

What If You’re Unsure?

It’s normal to feel uncertain about the type of therapy you need. During an initial consultation, ask therapists about their approach and why they believe it would benefit you. They’re there to guide you and help you determine the best path forward.

Adjusting Your Therapy Journey

Your therapy needs may evolve over time. If you’re currently in therapy but feel that your progress is stagnating, discuss your concerns with your therapist. Together, you can explore whether a different approach or even a new therapist might be more suitable.

Remember, Change Is Normal

It’s okay to change therapists or modalities as you learn more about what works best for you. This journey is about your well-being, and exercising your autonomy in making adjustments can be a powerful part of the healing process.

Final Thoughts

Choosing the best type of therapy for you is a personal and evolving process. Don’t hesitate to try different approaches or therapists until you find the right match. Remember, the goal is to find a supportive space where you can work toward healing and growth at your own pace.